An Evaluation of the Performance of the United Nations Essay Example for Free

An Evaluation of the Performance of the fall in Nations EssayAbstractThe joined Nations is the most dominant a officeside(a) governing bodyal boldness in the origination. Having been formed with the main objective of preventing fight immediately subsequently institution contend II, so far it appears to acquit had little success in doing so. Yet on that point atomic number 18 many a(prenominal) problems that are global in disposition and then depend on the coupled Nations to address them. This has prompted scrutiny into the activities and affairs of the linked Nations with the start of assessing the strengths and weaknesses of the organization. This field of honor takes a critical look into the structures and responsibilities of the political and hostage organs of the coupled Nations with the aim of identifying weaknesses and making proposals on how improve on the performance of the organization.Chapter I IntroductionIntroductory paragraphsThe challenge of in credential in external dealing remains virtuoso of the biggest threats facing the humanness today. Despite legion(predicate) spirited efforts by countries throughout the world to secure the planetary clay from the ever lurking dangers of foreign wars, the principle of collective security remains as snarled as ever.Since the formation of the join Nations (UN) in 1945, the foreign system has evidently been characterized by numerous security challenges that take for particularly been defined by events during the refrigerating state of war, after the polar struggle and after the September 11 2001 act of terrorism attacks upon the united States. With the foundation of the coupled Nations having been solidly based on the principles of collective security, there are increase concerns as to whether the unite Nations is living up to its billing.Past events hasten clearly show that the coupled Nations lacks adequate susceptibility and authority to go through the pr inciple of collective security. agree to Goldstein (2003), The UN require establishes a mechanism for collective security the banding together of the worlds disk operating systems to stop an aggressor (p. 267). Chapter 7 of the remove explicitly authorizes the surety Council to wont military force against pugnacity if the use of non-violent means as captured in chapter 6 fail. accord to the UN Charter, the fall in Nations whitethorn intervene domestically in a state that commits acts of aggression or poses threats to security.However, this principle is ordinarily enforced selectively. Analysis by Roberts Kingsbury (1994) showed that because great nations possess forbid powers, the UN can non aggressively stop aggression by (or sanctioned by) a great power. Therefore, Chapter seven was used once during the Cold War in the Korean War when the Soviet delegation unwisely boycotted the earnest Council proceedings (p. 61).The U.S. flew the U.N. flag in reversing the North Korean infringement of South Korea in 1950 and the invasion of Iraq in 1990, and some(prenominal) violations were a violation of the external law chthonic the UN charter (Roberts Kingsbury, 1994, p. 63). Goldstein (2003) notes that it was chthonic Chapter 7 of the Charter that the UN authorized the use of force to reverse Iraq aggression against capital of Kuwait in 1990 (p.269).To the surprise of many, the unite Nations never intervened militarily in similar illegal Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 and the Israel invasion of Lebanon in 1982 (Roberts Kingsbury, 1994, p. 68). These were clear indications that the get together Nations is limited by the demands of power politics in the world(prenominal) system. Kochler (2002) emphasizes that the internationalistic system is fundamentally anarchical, with the great powers still dominating the international system and the joined Nations itself (p. 6)Purpose of the studyJust as the League of Nations grew out of the World W ar I, the United Nations grew out of the World War II. Like the League of Nations, The United Nations did not fundamentally challenge national sovereignty, it did not alter the existent distribution of power among nation-states, and it institutionalized the dominant position of the great powers specifically the triumphant powers in the World War II. The United Nations did not gain the monopoly on the legitimate use of force, which would be necessary to become a world government and to inflict vow through superior force and authority. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to evaluate the fundamental abilities of the United Nations in pursuing and achieving the principle of collective security in the international system. search QuestionThe ever increasing threats to the state of security in the world have prompted a close scrutiny on the United Nations core function of collective security. As a contemporary international governmental organization (IGO), the United Nations certa inly does not constitute a world government with absolute power and authority to impose quiet on the world. Yet, this does not mean the United Nations is powerless or insignificant.While the United Nations faces numerous hurdles in enforcing the international law referable to the sovereignty statues of states and nation-states, the organization can still influence the behavior of states and yield forums for communication and inter bodily process that would be considered more orderly than implied by the concept of anarchy. Therefore the research question involves a critical look into the performance of the United Nations relative to its main function of upholding the principle of collective security in the international system.HypothesisThe core empirical research hypothesis of this study states that the United Nations has not succeeded in upholding the principle of collective security in the international system.Significance of the studyThe United Nations Charter is based on uni fying principles that avail as the driving force for the organizations initiatives. One of the key principles of the United Nations Charter is the recognition of the sovereign equality of all member states. As such, all member states are considered to be equally sovereign over their respective territories. Each member state has one vote in the cosmopolitan assembly, besides they are not equal in wealth and power. Moreover, only five major powers have lasting seats on the Security Council.Critics and admirers alike(predicate) point out that the United Nations institutionalizes international inequality due to the fact that the Charter is loaded with idealistic principles that concentrate little resemblance to reality. Therefore the study is significant because it will highlight on the many challenges that the United Nations faces in its efforts to uphold the principle of collective security and make appropriate recommendations for addressing those particular challenges.Research LimitationsThe main limitation of this study is lack of sufficient literature regarding the problems that the United Nations encounters age performing its core function of upholding the principle of collective security. Most of the existing literatures about the United Nations have focused more on the success of the organization rather than failures.Definition of termsFor the basis of this study, the definitions of international relations, international system, terrorism, international organizations and collective security will be expressed in the mere(a)st terms world(prenominal) relations are the processes that define the terms of interaction state and non-state actors concern amongst themselves in the international system. transnational system refers to a set of relationships among world states, structured according to certain rules and patterns of interaction. Goldstein (2003) illustrates that some of these rules are implicit while opposites are explicit as they determine wh o is considered a member of the system, what rights and responsibilities members have and what kind of rights and responsibilities kick the bucket among states.Terrorism refers to a form of political violence that targets civilians deliberately and indiscriminately, with the aim of gaining advantage in international bargaining situations. Terrorism usually becomes effective if it succeeds in damaging the morale of a population and excessively when it gains media exposure for the cause. worldwide organizations are organizations snarled in politically relevant activities whose social grade and activities occur in more than one orbit.Collective security is a principle of the UN Charter that advocates for the banding together of the worlds states to stop an aggression against member states. Under the principle of collective security, aggression against one member of the UN is seen as an aggression against all. Chapter 7 of the Charter explicitly authorizes the Security Council to use military force against aggression if the use of non-violent means as captured in chapter 6 fail.Chapter II accentLiterature ReviewThe United Nations was founded at the end of World War II in 1945 to replace the League of Nations. The formation of the UN became apparent after the identification that the League of Nations had failed miserably. Mesler (1997) acknowledges that the failure of the League of Nations was precipitated by the lack of adequate power and authority, instability in the international system and the unwillingness of the US Senate to ratify the treaty that formed the league (p. 11).However, the underlying principles that led to the formation of the United Nations are synonymous with those that governed the formation of the League of Nations. Unlike the League of Nations which lacked the sanding of the US Senate, the United Nations received the overwhelming endorsement and backing of both the US Senate and President.As an international governmental organizat ion (IGO), the foundation and significance of the United Nations is best demonstrated by the theory of realism. agree to the theory of realism, there is no world government, or political authority above the state, thus the international system is essendially anarchical without any overarching political body capable of imposing law and order in the behavior of its members or nation-states(Roberts Kingsbury, 1994, p. 19). The theory stresses on the centrality of the state, or nation-state, as the supreme political authority in world politics.The theory of realism is based on the assumption that the overriding motive of all states is self-preservation through maximization of power, a situation that transforms the international system to a static state of a war of all against all. Roberts Kingsbury (1994) note that stability is best chance upond through sense of balance of power, which results from uninhibited interaction among states, with the most powerful artless acting as a balancer (p.19).According to Goldstein (2003) the international relations theory of realism recognizes d birth in the mouth politics (economic and social matters) to be secondary to high politics (military and security) (p. 265). It is upon this premise that the United Nations was founded to act as the over-arching political body to impose law and order on the behavior. In essence, the United Nations would enforce peace by treating aggression against one as an aggression against all and collectively defeating the offender.The formation of the United Nations is barely favored by the international relations theory of idealism. The theory of idealism is based on Immanuel Kants philosophical theory that focuses on the cooperative capacity of human beings rather than their selfishness and lust for power. In his book titled Perpetual Peace, Immanuel Kant argued that just as the consensual establishment of government brings order and domestic peace of mind to mountain within states, so does the establishment of a world coitus among republican states in bringing perpetual peace to the world frequently, thus remainder the war for all time (Roberts Kingsbury, 1994, p. 39).Kant believed that a pacific union would need to be make up of republican states based on representative governments, for when the people themselves rather than princes could decide whether or not to go to war, they would invariably avoid it, for it is they who must bear all the burdens of warfare. These republican governments would establish a world congress to settle disputes and avoid the potential for violent conflict. Kant ultimately laid the philosophical groundwork not only for the contemporary theory of idealism, but in addition its check institutionalization in the form of international governmental organizations (IGOs) like the United Nations (Roberts Kingsbury, 1994, p. 40).However, the two theories of realism and liberalism are sharply contrasted by the theory of liberalism. Robe rts Kingsbury (1994) note that in the international system, liberalism theory recognizes state preferences as opposed to state capabilities, to be the primary determinants of state behavior (p.44).Roberts Kingsbury (1994) point out that unlike the theory of realism where the state is seen as a unitary actor, liberalism advocates for plurality of state actions (p.45). The liberalism theory march on states that interaction among states is not limited to high politics (military and security), but stretches still to beginning politics (economic and social matters). Therefore, this situation eliminates the anarchical situation in the international system as states gain plenty of opportunities for interaction through broader economic and pagan cooperation.Although the realism and liberalism theories project polar arguments concerning the founding philosophies of international organizations, both theories acknowledge the need for lasting peace and security in the international syst em. The spirit of peace and security is what motivated the founding of the United Nations. The organization was founded with the main objective of maintaining international peace and security through peaceful settlement of disputes. The United Nations is further entrusted with the task of promoting economic and social co-operation, in part through consultation with non-governmental organizations as tumefy as the promotion of human rights for populations throughout the world.The United Nations Charter is based on the principle that states are equal under international law states have full sovereignty over their own affairs that states should have full independence and territorial integrity and states should carry out their international obligations that include respecting diplomatic privileges, refraining from committing aggression, and observing the terms of the treaties they sign (Goldstein, 2003, p. 206). The Charter also lays out the structure of the United Nations and the metho ds by which it operates. According to the United Nations website, the structure of the United Nations consists of the popular fable, the Security Council, economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), Trusteeship Council, Secretariat, and the International Court of Justice.The secretariat is headed by the Secretary general and is principally the bureaucratic wing of the United Nations. The Secretary customary serves for a maximum of two 5 year terms. The international Court of Justice is headquartered in Hague, Netherlands, and serves as the principal judicial organ of the United Nations.It consists of fifteen judges elected by the habitual Assembly and Security Council for nine-year terms and separately one of them must be from a different state. While the decisions of the international Court of Justice are orchisly binding, it possesses no mechanisms of enforcement. The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) coordinates the United Nations various specialized agencies while the Truste eship Council was set up to oversee the administration of trusteeships.Weiss Dhows (2007) point out that the command assembly and the Security Council are the most big organs that handle issues that concern the principle of collective security (p.149). The general assembly is the only organ in which every member state is represented, with individually state having exactly one vote according to the spirit of sovereign equality. Linda (2003) further reveals that the General Assembly mainly serves as a forum for debates, reviews and setting of schedule (p.33). However, the enforcement of the decisions made by the General Assembly is never guaranteed despite the fact that the resolutions are usually passed by a 2/3 majority.The Security Council consists of five permanent members with veto powers. The five permanent members include the United States Britain, Russia, China and France. The Security Council also consists of 10 other members who are usually proposed by the General Assem bly and serve on a 2-year rotation basis. The decisions of the Security Council are binding and enforceable.According to Weiss Dhows (2007), the Security Council deals with collective security and peacekeeping mission at the request of one or more of the parties in conflict. Moreover, the Security Council has the rights to investigate any dispute or situation that might threaten international peace and security, and to recommend methods of resolution. The Security Council further negotiates ceasefires and disengagements as instruments of conflict resolution. The council is further vested with powers to sanction or authorize the use of military force to contain a conflict.However, the powers of the Security Council are limited in two ways first, the councils decisions depends entirely on the interests of member states, thus the ambassadors who represent the states cannot change a council resolution without authorization from their respective governments and second, member states oft en try to evade or soften the effects of binding resolutions made by the Security Council. However, Goldstein (2003) warns that Security Council resolution can be enforced only if enough powerful states care about it (p. 272).The Security Council runs a formal mechanism for coordinating multi lateral military action in response to aggression, referred to as the forces Staff Committee. The committee is composed of military officers from the permanent council members. The Military Staff Committee was established under chapter 43 of the United Nations charter.However, the committee has never been used due to the fact that the United States opposes the procedure of placing its forces under non-US commanders (Goldstein, 2003, p.272). According to Goldstein (2006) this is the reason why military forces responding to aggression under the auspices of the Security Council resolutions have always remained under their respective national commands, as was the case during the disjuncture War w here the U.S. forces undertook the mission of enforcing a UN resolution but did not display UN insignia or flags (p.273).The Cold war rivalry in the midst of the United States and the Soviet is considered to be one of the biggest challenges that ever characterized the United Nations Security Council. The rivalry had split the member states into two blocks, a situation that led to the unnecessary use of veto powers by the United States and the Soviet.According to the Un Committee Report on endorsers, the United Nations is funded through contributions from member states. Contributions are assessed according the economic strengths of the member states. The United States has always been the largest contributor to the United Nations. The United States used to contribute 25% of the UN budget until 1997 when maximum contribution was reduced to 20% under the watch of the then Secretary General Kofi Annan. The poorest majority of the General Assembly may pay less than 1% while the ten weal thiest contributors pay 75% of the budget, but cast less 75 of the vote.Major contributors to the regular UN budget for 2006Member StateContribution% of total UN budgetUnited States22.00%Japan19.47%Germany8.66%United Kingdom6.13%France6.03%Italy4.89%Canada2.81%Spain2.52%China2.05%Mexico1.88%Australia1.59%Brazil1.52% come www.unstats.un.org The above statistics are representative sample of financial contributions from UN member countries. All member states make contributions to the UN.Chapter III MethodsThe proposed study is based on a pre- slur design, heart and soul that performance evaluation was based on events during the Cold War, after the Cold War and the events after the September 11, 2001 terrorism attacks upon the United States. Participants were asked to state their opinions and answer opinions on questions regarding the performance of the United Nations relative to its key duties of ensuring collective security for all member states. The study mainly consisted of a demo graphic questionnaire consisting of 15 items that were designed to pecker the attitudes of the participants concerning the roles of the United Nations in maintaining global peace and security. The study involved a two-dimensional approach of tolerance and stability.Tolerance refers to the degree to which the principle of collective security is accepted as a politically tolerable action while stability refers to domestic and international legitimacy of the principle of collective security. The demographic questionnaire further consisted of descriptive information of the participants such as age, sex, religion, nationality, gender and race. The study also involved comprehensive research from existing literature that was designed to assess the lustiness of theories of international relations and international law to the founding principles of the United Nations.Data collectionStratified random samples were drawn from both online college populations and the general public, fol humilia teded by simple random sampling in each group. The study employed both theoretical and accessible populations in sampling with the aim of reaching wide and alter audiences. The sourced reports obtained from participants provided helpful insights into the different opinions and attitudes that different people of different ages, gender, religion, nationalities and races have towards the United Nations relative to the performance of its international duties. The population sample targeted existing views from participants aged 18 year and above.Data analysisAn analysis of variance was used to measure the data. Repeated measurements of data were used to determine and rate different opinions and attitudes from different participants concerning aspects of collective security functions of the United Nations.LimitationsLimitations in the context of this study refer to the factors which may have prevented the persons from participating or responding accurately to the questionnaires. The main limitation of this study involved geographical constraints. It was difficult to involve people from all member states of the United Nations given that the UN membership currently stands at more than 200 states. There were also restraints in terms of correct interpretation of the questions as many participants did not have deep knowledge and understanding of international relations. Some participants may have declined to participate completely because the 15 questionnaire items may have been too much for them.Chapter IV ResultsThe results of this study revealed that as much as the United Nations has performed and continues to perform important roles in international relations, the organization did not live up to its billing. Since its inception, the United Nations has been dancing to the whims of the super powers, and the United States in particular. Contrary to expectations, the United Nations did not fundamentally challenge national sovereignty, it did not alter the existing dist ribution of power among nation-states, and it institutionalized the dominant position of the great powers specifically the victorious powers in the World War II. According to Goldstein (2003), the United Nations did not gain the monopoly on the legitimate use of force, which was necessary for it to become a world government with authority to impose order through superior use of force (p. 270).The reality of equality among states in the UN is another issue that raises many concerns among member states. Roberts Kingsbury (1994) are have-to doe with that as much as the principles of the United Nations recognize the sovereign equality of all member states, and that each member state has one vote in the General assembly is far from the reality because member states are not equal in wealth and power (p.97). Moreover, only five major powers have permanent seats on the Security Council. Critics and admirers alike point out that the United Nations institutionalizes international inequalit y due to the fact that the Charter is loaded with idealistic principles that bear little resemblance to reality.Chapter V DiscussionThe credibility of the United Nations has been put to question due to issues surrounding sovereignty of the institution. The extent to which the United Nations can exercise critical authority to stamp order in the law and order in the international system remains a riddle. Roberts Kingsbury (1994) concur that this is reason why the U.S. flew the U.N. flag in reversing the North Korean invasion of South Korea in 1950 and the invasion of Iraq in 1990, and both violations were a violation of the international law under the UN charter (p.116).However, to the surprise of many, the United Nations never intervened militarily in similar illegal Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 and the Israel invasion of Lebanon in 1982 Roberts Kingsbury, 1994, p. 117). These were clear indications that the United Nations is limited by the demands of power politics in the international system. According to Kochler (2006),the international system is fundamentally anarchical, with the great powers still dominating the international system and the United Nations itself (p.21)Power struggles is one of the biggest challenges facing the United Nations today. Kochler (2002) notes that like states, IGOs are largely designed by the dominant powers to serve their interests (p. 23) Kochler (2002) further notes that while the existence of the United Nations is intended to maintain world peace and security, it is a world peace and security that perpetuates existing power arrangements and the economic and political systems that support them (p.24). A case in point is the 1989 invasion of Kuwait by Iraq.The UN acted when Iraq invaded Kuwait, mainly because the US was able to dominate the Security Council and the invasion threatened to plus world oil prices. This was classic power politics within the guise of a new world order (Roberts Kingsbury, 1994, p. 123) . On the other hand, when the United Nations General Assembly issued a near universal condemnation of the U.S. invasion of Panama, the United States ignored the condemnations and executed the entire invasion with little regard to international concerns.These cases arose as a result of the weakness apparent in the structure of the United Nations. Roberts Kingsbury (1994) are concerned that the United Nations gives greater enforcement powers to the Security Council than to other bodies within the organization, in time the Security Council is dominated by the great powers which only trail interests that are of significance to their nations (p.128).The other concern raised in regard to the performance of the United Nations is the aspect of equality in participation. In essence, cooperation does not necessarily imply the equality of participation or interests. As situations provide, states cooperate in institutions that exploit them because they encompass no option, just as the case with the UN, which clearly executes its mandate in favor of the interests of the super powers while neglecting the poor countries.A timber by step analysis of the UN during and after the Cold War as intumesce as after the September 11, 2001 terrorism attacks upon the United States reveals some of the most appalling weaknesses in the abilities of the United Nations to enforce lasting peace and security in the international system.The United Nations during the Cold WarThe period between 1945 and 1955 went down as one of the most difficult periods in the history of the United Nations. Marked by a Cold War stalemate that pitied the United States and the Soviet Union against each other, the UN made very little progress during this period due to browse use of veto powers by the two countries (Mesler, 1997, p.14).One of the biggest challenges that the United Nations go about was that of membership expansion because the US and Soviet exercised their veto powers to prevent the admission of new states perceived to be allied with the other side. Mesler (1997) reveals that between 1945 and 1955, the UN only managed to admit 9 new members (p.16). However, a 1955 bloc deal permitted admission of 16 new members, 8 on each side and the stalemate was avoided thereafter through frequent consultations and bargaining, and caucusing.The United Nations was also characterized by serious funding disputes during the Cold War. In 1956, the Soviet Bloc and several Arab States declined to contribute to the United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF) that was sent to set up a buffer between Israel and Egypt after the second Arab Israel war (Mesler, 1997, p.19). This war came about when Egypt under Nasser sought to nationalize the British controlled Suez Canal, an action the prompted a declaration of war by Britain, France and Israel.Goldstein (2003) acknowledges that during the Cold War, the United Nations had hardly a(prenominal) successes in international security because the U.S. Sov iet conflict prevented consensus (2003, p.269). The United Nations had been relegated to irrelevance in a world order that had been structured by two opposing alliance blocks. Mesler (1997) is concerned that although there were few notable exceptions, such as agreements to station peacekeeping forces in the Middle East, the United Nations did not play a central role in solving international crisis (p.31).The predominance of third world membership added to the UN woos as they necessitated the shift of focus by the UN from security issues to economic and social problems of the poor countries. This was contrary to the international relations theory of realism which identifies low politics (economic and social matters) to be secondary to high politics (military and security). Third world states also used the United Nations as a forum for criticizing the abstruse countries in general, with the United States having been their main target (Goldstein 2003 p. 270).In the 1950s and 1960s, th e UN membership doubled as colonies in Africa and Asia gained independence. The expansion caused changes in the character of the general Assembly. According to Mesler (1997), The concerns of the new members were completely different from those of the westward industrialized nations and on many occasions, showed open resentment to their former colonial masters (p.31). Moreover, the third world states became concerned about the overwhelming powers and privileges that the United States enjoyed in the UN. Mesler (1997) further reveals that third world countries were concerned in the manner in which the UN usually became effective in international security affairs when the United States led the efforts.These concerns led to the emergence of rifts between the United States and the third world countries, and consequently, the United States found itself on the minority on many issues. By 1980s when the pressure from the third world countries became unbearable, the United States reacted by withholding their financial contributions to the United Nations. According to Mesler (1997), the non payment of U.S dues rose to more than $1 billion and was subsequently followed by the withdrawal of membership from the UNESCO (p. 33).However, it must be noted that the UN registered quite some notable success in the late 1980s just before the end of the Cold war. Mesler (1997) acknowledges that the UN successfully brought to an end several regional conflicts that included the 1988 Iraq Iran war and the Central American crisis (p.39). The UN successfully engineered ceasefire negotiations among the parties and provided peacekeeping forces that monitored the implementations of the ceasefire agreements.The United Nations after the Cold WarThe end of the Cold War marked the end of bipolar alignments in the international system and paved way to a multilateral order. This led to more flexible relations among states in the international system and thus great powers could finally agree on different issues regarding the international security. The end of the Cold War further brought to a halt the trend that the third world had deployed in playing off the super powers against each other.According to Mesler (1997), greater cooperation emerged between the United States and the formerly hostile third world countries, a situation that moved the UN to the center stage of international relations (p.38). However, the United Nations still faced challenges that basically related to the drive for power by the country that emerged as the global hegemon from the power struggle of the Cold War, in this case, the United States of America.By the early 1990s, the United Nations had successfully asserted its position as the worlds most important tool for settling international conflicts. According to an analysis provided by Goldstein (2003) in 1993, Security Council resolutions had increased to 78 from 15 in 1987 peacekeeping missions had arise to 17 from 5 in 1987 peacekeepers had ri sen to 78,000 from 12,000 in 1987 and countries sending troops had risen to 76 from 26 in 1987 (p. 269). Moreover, the UN oversaw the independence of Namibia from South Africa and the countrys first free elections in 1990.However, the UN faced numerous daunting challenges during the post-Cold War period. Mesler (1997) identifies the problem of inadequate funding that was occasioned by the non-payment of dues by the United States to have been one of the biggest challenges that the United Nations faced during the post Cold War period (p.42). The UN woos during the post-Cold War period were further worsened by the failure of the United States to honor its financial obligations to the organization Mesler (p.42).The United States failed to pay its dues for many years, citing budgetary misappropriation by the UN as their main concern. The US congress demanded the shrinking of UN budgets and cutting down of staff jobs before sanctioning the allocation of coin to the UN. The US congress fu rther delayed confirming the new US ambassador to the UN, Richard Holbrook, leaving the position vacant for a year. These particular free-riding tendencies by the US presented the UN with difficulties in delivering its core functions of collective security and responsibility.Another post Cold War draw back occurred in Angola, where, upon sending just a few peacekeepers to assist in the beefing up of security during the 1992 elections, hell broke loose and rebels took up arms after the government won in the internationally observe elections. The UN was completely overwhelmed and could not contain the rebels. In Cambodia, the Khmer Rouge faction refused to disarm according to the UN brokered peace plan it had signed, a process that was subsequently overtaken by events after a coup that interrupted Cambodias transition to democracy (Mesler 1997, p. 51).Mesler (1997) identifies Yugoslavia as the other place where the UN faced serious draw backs even after proletariat the largest peace keeping mission of nearly 40,000 foreign troops costing $1 billion annually from 1993 and 1995 (P. 51). The mission was extremely incapacitated by the variance that emerged between the type of forces sent (lightly armed forces equipped for humanitarian operations) and the situation on the ground which was a full scale territorial aggression by intemperately armed forces (Mesler, 1997, p.52). This unhappy combination came to be known as peacekeeping where there was no peace to keep.Mesler (1997) notes that in response to the problems of inefficiency and financial difficulties, the UN scaled back its peacekeeping troops from 78,000 in 1995 to 19,000 in 1997, and further carried out staff reduction and reforms in the UN secretariat and UN programs (p. 53).UN during the Post 9/11The September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks upon the United States marked a turning point in the history of the United Nations. The US significantly increased its participation in the United Nations, and a decisive coalition of member states endorsed US war on terrorism. However, there are increased concerns throughout the world that the United States has hijacked the whole process to advance its own national interests at the expense of other states. The United Nations has been pushed to the periphery by the United States in the war on terrorism.The foreign policy measures adopted by the United States after the September 11terrorism attacks are a clear encroachment of the international law. The United States has masterminded the emergence of a new geo-strategic situation in the international system that has effectively reduced the United Nations to a mere rubber stamping authority. As the only hegemony, the United States has taken full advantage of its dominant attitude usurp the roles of the United Nations.The United States claims supreme authority for all measures related to the ongoing anti-terrorism campaigns and does not accept neutral arbiters such as the UN in goal of the actual te rrorism threats (Kochler, 2002, p. 4). According to Kochler (2002) the United Nations has indeed been pushed to the sidelines and cannot act anymore according to the Charters doctrine of collective security, which since the end of World War II was and still ought to be the core element of multilateral international order represented or advocated, to be more realistic by the world body (p.9).Kochler (2002) asserts that by arrogating itself the right to act on behalf of the international community, the United States violates the principles that were established under the United Nations Charter which are exclusively reserved for the Security Council and can only be invoked in conformity with the regulations of Chapter 7 of the United Nations Charter (p.11).In its pursuits on the war on terror, the United States with the backing of its western allies attacked Afghanistan in October 2001. However, the attack did not receive the full backing of the United Nations Security Council. There fore, despite the wide ranging support for the genuine course and concerns of the United States, it is important for operations of such magnitude to undertaken strictly under the full mandate of the United Nations.The other instance during which the United States undermined the authority of the United Nations was the invasion of Iraq in March 2003. Although the Iraq invasion was well intended to rid the world of the dangers posed by weapons of mass destruction and terrorism, once again the United States did not seek the full approval of the UN Security Council. The war in Iraq has ended up being too devastating, claiming lives of thousands of Iraqi citizens and military personnel of the US and its allies. A critical analysis of the Iraq war relative to the rational model of war reveals a big gap between the good achieved and the evil that has been entrenched by the war. It is evident that the Iraq conflict could have been handled effectively by the United Nations through non-violent means as provided for by the chapter 6 of the Charter.The US war on terrorism is run on a platform of preventive war. The concept of preventive war as advanced in the new strategic doctrine of the United States is by all means incompatible with the United Nations Charter because the Charter explicitly and unequivocally bans use of force in all forms in the international system except in cases of self-defense or by way of chapter 7 of the UN Charter upon full approval of the Security council Kochler, 2002, p. 12).Kouchler (2002) further demonstrates his concerns by stating that under the present circumstances, national sovereignty though guaranteed by the United Nations Charter has been reduced to a states freedom to identify vis--vis the only superpower, with the alternative of either joining the forces of evil or opposing them, without any rights to participate in the determination of what is evil. Therefore, the United States has successfully entrenched its own strategic agenda s in different parts of the world under the guise of counter-terrorism war (p. 21). Kouchler identifies the control over specific geopolitical regions and strategic natural resources to be among the key agenda of the US policies that are being implemented under the ongoing war on terror.The US war on terror has evidently taken soggy toll on peace and security in the entire international system. Apart from undermining the principle of collective security as espoused by the United Nations Charter, the counter-terrorism war has been detrimental to the principle of sovereignty and equality of states in the international system. Moreover, individual human rights and fundamental freedoms of citizens throughout the world have been curtailed due to the ever increasing threats of retaliatory attacks from terrorists.Furthermore, citizens of countries under US military invasion have often become victims of indiscriminate use of force. The US war on terror further aggravates internal tensions, ignites ethnic rivalries and deepens existing social problems in independent states that should otherwise enjoy the sovereignty and equal say in the international system. The United Nations has absolutely been dominated and eclipsed by the United States during the post September 11, 2001 period.Chapter VI ConclusionThere exists a consensus among many states that the United Nations provides the best global forum for discussing general multilateral issues. States gain leverage by using the UN to seek more beneficial outcomes in conflicts. According to the United Nations website, the UN provides international stability acts as a representative symbol of global identity provides a forum where states promote their views and present their disputes and provides mechanisms for conflict resolutions in international security affairs. No single country in this world can sufficiently perform all these roles to the levels that the United Nations does.In numerous circumstances however, the Unit ed Nations has been referred to as a toothless quest after that only barks but cannot bite due to its continued inability to enforce law and order in international relations. Linda (2003) asserts that despite these accusations, many of the failures of the United Nations occurred as a result of struggles among external forces rather than the organizations own failure (p.74). Linda (2003) cites the competition between the US and Soviet blocs as having been one of the biggest impediments in the UN during the Cold War (p.74).The United States and the Soviet applied their veto powers to block any decisions that were not in their favor. Moreover, the third world countries maximized on the weaknesses created by the Cold War rivalries to pursue their own selfish interests which were focused on economic and social interests. Therefore, the principle of collective security became secondary to other interests that were being pursued by both the developed and developing countries. Linda (2003) acknowledges that without adequate support from member countries, it became impossible for the United Nations to pursue the agenda of collective security (p.76).While the United Nations performed exceptionally well during the post Cold War era, its operations were severely affected by problems of inadequate funding. The organization was particularly affected by non-payment of dues by the United States. The post September 11 period has seen the United Nations being completely overshadowed by the US in the war against terror. Kochler (2002) warns that with the US war on terrorism having claimed so many lives right from its inception to date, there is an pressing need for change of tactic (p. 31). According to Kochler (2002) the United Nations needs to reclaim its rightful position as the global authority vested with powers to enforce peace and sanity in the international system (.p.32).Therefore, there is an urgent need for powerful countries to give the United Nations its due recogn ition as the world security and peacekeeping body. Countries such as the United States must learn to pursue their interests within the framework of chapter 7 of the United Nations Charter. Kochler (2002) further warns that the arbitrary attacks on other countries without the approval of the Security Council defeat the purpose and spirit of collective security as a whole (p.33). much(prenominal) attacks and invasions only serve to divide the world even further along ideological, religious and economic lines.In order to achieve sustainable peace and security throughout the world, it must be acknowledged that the United Nations does not exist because it has powers to force its will on the worlds states rather, it exists because states founded it to serve their needs (Goldstein, 2006, p. 265). The United Nations should no longer be taken for granted. Although the international relations are still characterized by anarchy, the United Nations is the closest form of world government that the international system has ever cherished.Therefore, efforts must be harnessed to give the United Nations due recognition, greater financial capacity and more political powers to act on behalf of states in fostering world security and international relations. Goldstein contends that the United Nations further acts as a leverage for moderating costs of achieving collective security, because UN dues and expenses of diplomatic representatives in addition to the agreement to behave in accordance with the Charter provide a cost effective avenue compared to the costs that individual countries would incur to achieve the same objectives (p.266).While the United Nations can serve as a forum for international cooperation, much can be achieved only if high coincidences of interests occur so that more agreements can be reached and implemented. Considering the fact that member states retain their full sovereignty status, binding decisions require cooperation and consensus rather than majority votes. Furthermore, there is urgent need for an overhaul of the UN structures so as to eliminate the existing power gaps among member states.This follows concerns to the effect that the United Nations gives greater enforcement powers to the Security Council than to other bodies within the organization, yet the Security Council is dominated by the great powers which only pursue interests that are of significance to their nations. Roberts Kingsbury (1994) are categorical that more power should be transferred from the Security Council to the General Assembly where states receive equal recognition and voting rights (p. 134). The Security Council should also be expanded with the objective of distributing power evenly among member states as well within all the organs of the United Nations.Although the main objective that motivated the foundation of the United Nations was the provision of international security through prevention of war, the other services being provided by the organizati on should never be ignored or pushed to the background. There are many problems which are global in nature that rely on the United Nations. According to Goldstein (2003) globalization has gradually transformed the world into a single economy, thus multinational corporations are relocating from one country to another and building subsidiaries in several other countries (P.112). Subsequently the world has become more interdependent, with technology having transformed communication to instantaneous levels.All these developments have introduced new challenges and conditions in the international system that no single country can absorb all the pressure presented by such challenges and conditions. These conditions and challenges are presented in the form of population growth, healthcare issues like HIV-AIDS, environmental issues like global warming, drug trafficking and terrorism. Therefore, war should not be the only international dilemma for the United Nations. However, it may be that t he United Nations remains too institutionally undeveloped, lacking independent authority and resources, to effectively deal with any of these problems.Reference ListGoldstein, J. (2003). International Relations. Pearson Education, Inc.,Kochler, H. (2002) International ecumenical conference The war on terror, its impact on sovereignty of states, and its implications for human rights and civil liberties.Linda, F. (2003). An Insiders Guide to the UN. Yale University Press.Mesler, S. (1997). United Nations The First litre Years. Atlantic Monthly Press.Pilar P. R. (2001). Terrorism and U.S. Foreign Policy. Washington Brookings Institution PressRoberts, A. Kingsbury, B. (Eds.), (1994). United Nations, Divided World The UNs Role in International Relations, 2nd EdThe United Nations Charter of the United Nations. Retrieved from http//www.un.org/aboutun/charter/index.html/ on 25/03/2008The United Nations. The United Nations Organization. Retrieved from http//www.un.org/aboutun/basicfacts/uno rg.htm/ on 25/03/2008The United Nations. (2006). Report on the committee on contributions. Retrieved from http//www.un.org/Depts/dpko/contributors/N0642856.pdf?OpenDS=A/61/11Lang=E on 26/05/2008Weiss G.T. Dhows, S. (Eds.), (2007). The Oxford Handbook on United Nations. Oxford University Press.

Price Elascity of Demand Essay Example for Free

Price Elascity of Demand EssayPrice Elascity of Demand BY vtc901ee The price snatch of demand (PED) is a measure of how much the sum demanded of a good responds to a vary in price of the good (Mankiw 2007, p. 90). It is a form of measure to determine how pass oning consumers ar to move away from the good as the price of the good rises. Most of the time, there are factors that determines the PED, such as availability of close substitutes, necessities versus luxuries, definition of the market and time horizon. In order to purport the PED, a formula is calculated using the percentage change in the criterion demanded divided y the percentage change in the price.Elastic demand that has the coefficient of greater than 1 suggests that there would be a significant change in quantity demanded when there is a little change in price while inflexible demand has a coefficient of less than one, which has a little change in quantity demanded even when there is a significant change in price. Unitary demand occurs when there is a coefficient of exactly one and there is an exact change in quantity demanded in proportion to the change in price (Bolotta et al. 2002). There are two ways to calculate the PED.Firstly, it is called the point method or also nown as geometric method (DEISU 2008). Under this method, we measure the elasticity of demand at whatsoever point of a demand curve using the formula, Elasticity at each point on the straight line can be calculated using the point method provided that the demand line is linear. The better way to calculate the PED is by using the shopping centre method, which is to calculate the PED between two points on a demand curve by averaging the 2 initial and final points chosen.The midpoint approach averages the prices and quantities demanded, thus arriving at an average elasticity estimate for the range of values covered on the demand curve. The formula is, The product that is chosen to inform the theory of PED is rice. R ice is one of the perfect examples of inelastic demand applied in todays world, especially in Malaysia. There was an interesting finding made by Nik Mustapha and other researchers, where they find that rice tends to be inelastic, showing that rice has already occupied a special position in Malaysian diet as it is a staple food among the population (FEMI-JPM 2008).Other countries in Asia are also affected by the demand for rice. In Thailand, the export price elasticity of demand for rice is ranged -1. 2 and -1. 9, which shows that it is an inelastic demand (FEMI-JPM 2008). The graph would be similar to Figure 3, whereby it has a steeper slope. This indicates that the consumer would pay at almost any price set in the market for the good as it is a necessity in food for them. The PED of the rice is important in terms of their price decisions as the total revenue can change along the demand curve, and this in return depends on the PED.In this case, rice is considered to be inelastic, an d for all inelastic demands, an increase in price will have an increase in total revenue (Mankiw 2007, p. 95). However, this is also crucial in determining the maximum boodle that can be made using the PED. If all the farmers have good harvest, a large drop in price is necessary to encourage consumers to enjoyment the additional grain (Ingrimayne. com) this will cause the farmers income to decrease, thus it is important to know the PED of the rice. For instance, if the quantity of rice increases by 20%, it means that there could be a decrease of price by 40%.In explaining on how the tax being imposed by the political science can affects the production of rice, a amply labelled market diagram for rice (inelastic demand) is illustrated. Consumer surplus is the extra amount consumers are willing to pay from the ctual price whereas producer surplus is the amount sellers are paid for a good minus the sellers cost of providing it (Mankiw 2007, pp. 139-144). Before the disposal impose tax on rice, consumer surplus and producer surplus are persistent by equilibrium of price in the market.By imposing the tax on rice, the quantity of rice sold falls and there is a paladin between the price that buyers pay and the price that sellers receive. Both surpluses are reduced because there is tax revenue imposed by the government, resulting in a deadweight loss, a condition where a fall in surplus exceeds tax revenue, a form of market distortion (Mankiw 007, p. 162). These tax revenues are classified as government revenue. Government revenue may differ depending on the size of the tax, as different tax size generates different tax revenue.Since an inelastic demand decreases the quantity produced by a little, it can be assumed that the deadweight loss is also smaller, causing the tax revenue to increase slightly, as shown in Figure 10. Next, we will discuss the tax burden of the production of rice. Tax incidence is the distribution of tax burden among the participants in th e market. In the rice market, taxes imposed on the buyers and the sellers are the same no matter whether the tax s charged on buyers or sellers, but the only difference is that who will send the money to the government (Mankiw 2007, pp. 24-127). To prove that, the following are the examples when a tax is charged on either buyers or sellers The overall social welfare will be clearly shown once the effects of tax have on the quantity and price of the product, as the change in the total welfare decreases the consumer surplus and producer surplus, and ordinarily exceeds the tax revenue raised maximised as there is deadweight loss incurred in the process of taxation, causing the quantity of goods decrease

Investment Appraisal Report Example

Investment Appraisal Report ExampleRe Investment in Kingfisher PlcFollowing our conversation earlier, I give birth prep ard a report into Kingfisher Plc to foster you with your investment decision. I devour split this report into two sections, to help you analyse the comp some(prenominal)s fiscal management practices and as well to determine what represents a sightly legal injury for the attach tos shargons.As we discussed earlier, when making any investment it is vital to consider the financial management policies and practices of the high society. These include what the keep go with invests in how these investments perform how the company raises funds to invest and how the company treats its moolah. As such(prenominal), the first part of this section leave extend these four sections in turn, and how these preserve the exercise of the company.The second section impart address the fair pass judgment of the theatrical roles of the company. This is because, whilst th e company may perform well, if the contends are purchased for much than a fair economic determine, base on the companys ability to earn, they may non provide a good return to an investor.I desire this report will be of interest to you, please let me know if you redeem any questions ab go forth any aspects.Part A)Financial ManagementInvestmentsKingfishers primary investment all everyplace the ancient five years has been in tangible additions, such as property, plant and equipment, which ad try on do up over fifty percent of entireness assets over the past five years. The majority of the remain assets are composed of thanksgiving, with small amounts devoted to pension plans, financial derivatives and separate intangible assets. This commode be seen in the t qualified belowTable of non current asset set for Kingfisher Group Plc (all in one thousand thousands)Assets200320042005200620072008Property, Plant and Equipment304127813032326532113698Goodwill2652245524632559255 22532 different Assets309146289354380532(Source Kingfisher, 2008)The main trend in the assets of Kingfisher has been a steady rise in the evaluate of property, plant and equipment as well as new(prenominal) assets. The main revision in the other assets is a rise in the aim of post employment benefits deferred tax assets and derivative financial instruments, which were not on the balance canvas in 2003 but arrive at a total value of over 200 gazillion in 2008. In addition, the drop in all values from 2003 to 2004 is a result of the disposal of the Chartwell Land property portfolio, which resulted in a reduction in the value of all asset classes due to the transfer of goodwill associated with the property sold. From 2004 onwards, the company has engaged in a significant expansion program based on organic growth and the opening of new stores. This has by nature additiond the value of the total property, plant and equipment with a small drop in 2007 where the company disposed o f some of its less profitable stores.This balance in assets is largely expected because Kingfisher is a retail group, operating stores such as BQ, Screwfix, Castorama, and Brico Depot. As such, the groups main source of income comes from sales from these stores hence these stores are the most valuable asset the group owns. In addition, the company maintains a diverse portfolio of businesses crossways the UK, France and other countries including the Republic of Ireland, Poland, Italy, Spain, Turkey and China. In order to ascertain in these countries, the group needs to own assets such as stores, offices, and distribution networks. This further increases the percentage of total assets which will be taken up by property, plant and equipment.With regards to the level of goodwill, this became quite high prior to 2003, but has stayed quite constant over the period of the study. This indicates that a significant proportion of the business assets have been purchased for more than their m ass value. This is possibly how the group has managed to obtain such a large portfolio of businesses, and particularly how it has managed to ensure that all of its businesses are in the top trey of the domestic markets. However, over the period of the study, the group has not experienced a significant increase or decrease in the level of goodwill, which implies that it has not significantly stretch outed its portfolio through acquisitions, and the majority of the increase in the value of the total assets has come through organic growth or purchases at close to book value. This is slightly complicated by the groups goodwill policy, which makes an assessment of the ability of acquired businesses to generate cash each year, and amortises the level of goodwill to compensate. As such, it is practicable that the group has invested a significant amount in buying new businesses, and the value of the goodwill from these businesses has since fallen. However, the annual reports mention th at new stores are being opened, not bought, which implies that the groups expansion policy is to open new stores, rather than acquire existing ones from competitors.Investment appraisalInvestment appraisal is generally make on a per project basis, with a company projecting the cashflows, both positive and negative, associated with a project and then calculating whether the net cashflow will be positive or negative, and by how much. This value can be calculated based on either the absolute value of the cashflows, or on the discounted value of the cashflows which takes into account the fact that cashflows occurring in later years will be less valuable due to inflation and other factors (Knott, 2004). However, when considering an investment in Kingfisher, this ruleological analysis is not appropriate, as the company is a continuous operation with no definite start or end point. Indeed, all the new stores the company opens are intended to remain operational for the foreseeable future, hence making it very difficult to calculate their rates of return and net present values. Whilst the company will undoubtedly have an internal method for doing this, perhaps taking the cashflows for the first five years of operations, this method is not detailed in the annual reports. Nor does Kingfisher distinguish details of the exact hails of the investment into stores or their cashflows in the annual reports, thus making it impossible to attempt such an analysis with the available data.As such, it is necessary to analyse the performance of Kingfishers overall business, from the point of view of an investor looking to buy shares. As such, the initial purchase of the shares represents the initial investment, and the return made on these shares can be taken to be the future cashflows for the purposes of the analysis. On this basis, it is necessary to look at the annual returns provided by Kingfisher, as well as the change in the value of the shares (Lumby, 1994).Kingfisher annua l share expense from May 2003 to May 2008DateClosing Price27/05/2003257.2527/05/2004285.527/05/200525926/05/2006235.7525/05/2007252.7527/05/2008138.1(Source Yahoo Finance, 2008)Kingfisher stipend per share from 2003 to 2008 category meshing per share200316.4200417.4200520.8200612.2200711.8200811.7(Source Kingfisher, 2008)As can be seen from these graphs above, Kingfishers share price and net profit per share have both fallen over the period of the study. As such, one share purchased for 257 pence in 2003 would be worth but 138 pence in 2008, and the total dividend earnings per share would be beneficial 90 pence. As such, the total return from an investment of 257 pence would be only 228 pence. This implies that an investment in Kingfisher over the past three years would have performed very poorly, with a return of -12.7% over five years, even without considering discount factors and net present values. Indeed, given that the positive cashflows have occurred after the negative c ashflows, any investment in Kingfisher would have a negative net positive value for any positive discount factor.In addition, the earnings per share have fallen from 2003 to 2008. Within the period of the study, earnings per share rose from 2003 to 2005, before falling sharply between 2005 and 2006 and then rest relatively constant. This fall is specifically mentioned in Kingfishers 2006 annual report as being due to a significant fall in profits from the UK market, which was driven by rising energy costs, higher taxes and pension contributions and consumer confidence has been affected by a weaker ho exploitation market (Kingfisher, 2008). This implies that Kingfishers investments in the UK have performed poorly over the past three years, and indeed the 2008 annual report shows that the UK investments have further weakened against the background of the global opinion crunch. Whilst the credit crunch has affected all markets around the world, Kingfisher specifically points out that the high level of debt in the UK has created even more problems for consumers, who have less money to put down as their debt payments have risen. As such, Kingfishers investments in the UK, which account for around 47% of the groups total revenue, are unlikely to improve their performance in the near future.Sources of fundingKingfisher main sources of fundingAll in millions200320042005200620072008Total long term debt1528744.9828.31255.514321620Total equity446344074387.34320.444214724(Source Kingfisher, 2008)Kingfisher is strongly dependent on equity as a source of funding, with total shareholders equity making up at least three times as much of the funding as long term debt. Short term debt has been excluded from these calculations, partly because short term debt appears to be apply only to settle any cashflow issues, and partly because prior to the 2006 accounts short term debt was not declared separately from trade payables. As such, it would be impossible to compare short te rm debt across the entire period. It is worth point out that the decrease in debt from 2003 to 2004 is largely due to the sale of the Chartwell Land property portfolio mentioned above. The proceeds of this sale were largely used to reduce the level of long term borrowings, thus resulting in a significant drop between 2003 and 2004.However, following this sale, when the debt to equity ratio fell to just 0.17, the amount of debt has risen steadily, to the point where it reached 0.34 in 2008, the same level as in 2003. This rise has been accompanied by a small rise in the level of shareholder equity, but not to the extent that the total asset value has risen as seen in the investments section above. This implies that the store expansion and return programs mentioned throughout the Kingfisher annual reports during the period of the study have been funded largely by debt. This has caused the companys debt to equity ratio to rise quite significantly over the period of the study, which ha s more than doubled the debt to equity ratio.This significant increase in the debt to equity ratio could be a cause for concern, as it potentially places a higher debt burden on the company which must be serviced from profits. As such, if the companys fortunes continue to suffer due to the effects of the credit crunch, the company may have difficulty paying its debts and may suffer liquidity problems. However, in the 2008 financial statements the net finance costs on the debt are just 62 million, whilst the operating profit is 453 million. As such, the company can cover its interest more than seven times from profits, which means that this rise in the level of debt is not currently a significant concern. Of course, running counter to this is the fact that the global credit crunch is expected to increase the effective rates of borrowing, which could increase the interest payments as well as reducing the long term levels of consumer spending. As such, it is possible that the credit cr unch will continue to reduce Kingfishers profits whilst increasing the interest cost, thus potentially creating financial troubles in the next few years. This potential issue is compounded by the fact that the company capitalised 1 million of borrowing costs in 2007, and a further 3 million in 2008, which may indicate issues in paying these loans out of profit.The major sources of debt finance for the business at the current time are medium term notes and other fixed term debt, which make up 1,436 million of the debt. These have been placed on markets in the UK, Eurozone and United States and have raised capital at a net cost of between 4.1% and 6.9%. As such, the company has relied on non convertible loans raised on public markets. The majority of the remainder is made up of non secured bank loans. This indicates that, even if the company should encounter financial difficulties, it will not necessarily lose any of its property or have its equity diluted by convertible loans.Treatme nt of profits and dividend policyYear200320042005200620072008Dividend per share (pence)9.59.6510.6510.6510.657.25Earnings per share (pence)16.417.420.812.211.811.7(Source Kingfisher, 2008)From 2003 to 2005, Kingfishers dividend grew by a reasonable amount, although this was not proportional to the increase in earnings per share over the period. This indicates that Kingfisher was using partly using the increase in earnings to boost the dividend, but mainly using it to build up the volume of fill-ins, pay back debt, and expand the company. As a result of this, the company allowed its earnings per share to rise by more than the level of the dividend. Following the decline in the UK market from 2005 to 2006, and the incidental fall in the earnings per share for the company, Kingfisher attempted to maintain its dividend at 10.65 pence per share in spite of the fact that this left very little hold earnings. However, in 2008, following a significant fall in the share price, the dividend yield has also fallen to 7.25 pence in spite of the earnings per share remaining at the same level as in previous years. This implies that the company is now encountering difficulties maintaining its dividend yield at this level, and thus is having to drop its dividend in order to roll further reserves.Unfortunately, there is no detail in the Kingfisher accounts around exactly why this reserve is being built up. However, it is interesting to note that the reserves have now been built up to the 2.2 billion mark, after being maintained at around the 1.9 billion mark for the period from 2005 to 2007. This may indicate that the company feels that the tough business conditions will continue for some time, and hence there may be a need to retain more earnings to help cover interest payments in the future. Another potential explanation is that, as a retail company owning a significant amount of property, plant and equipment Kingfisher has a significant level exposure to the property mark et in both the UK and France. As such, the company may feel that, with the property markets in the UK and France showing signs of helplessness due to the credit crunch, there may soon be a need to revalue the property portfolio in each of these countries. Therefore, the reduced dividend and increase reserve may be an attempt to boost the equity and net asset value of the company in order to protect the value of the company against such a fall.However, the balance sheet tends to reveal a different potential explanation. The rise of 300 million in the value of the reserves of the company has occurred at the same time as a 300 million rise in the value of the inventory held by the company. This could be due to the fact that cost price inflation is significantly boosting the cost of inventory and the price of sales, and hence has increased the value of the inventory held by the company. However, the annual report indicates that cost price inflation for the company was just 4% over the previous year. As such, this cost price inflation is unlikely to have created a 300 million rise in the value of inventory, which is a 20% rise in the total value of inventory. This implies that the rise in the value of the inventory is for another reason, potentially due to a lack of sales or by overbuying of replacement inventory. As such, this does not indicate that the company is making the best use of its profits, nor that it is efficiently pursuing a goal of maximising value for its shareholders.Part B) Fair ValueWhen attempting to assess whether the current share price of Kingfisher Plc represents a fair value for the company, it is necessary to look both as the share price and the market capitalisation which is the total market value of all the shares. This price is determined by the shares traded on a stock market where brokers buy and sell shares on behalf of their clients. For Kingfisher, the stock market is the London Stock Exchange, and Yahoo Finance (2008) quotes the current share price of the company as 128.2 pence. In addition, the 2008 annual report states there are 2,361 million shares outstanding. This gives the company a total market capitalisation of 3.027 million as of the 18th sumptuous.One potential method of calculating the fair value of the company is through the net asset value of the company. This is because, provided the company can sell all its assets and pay off all its liabilities at their book value, it will realise its net asset value in cash. In addition, in theory the shareholders own a share of the net assets of the company equal to their share of the market capitalisation. Therefore, if the market capitalisation of the company was equal to the net asset value of the company, the share price would be at a fair value. For Kingfisher, the net asset value in the 2008 financial statements is 4,724 million. This implies that a fair value for the market capitalisation would also be 4,724 million, which is around 56% higher than the current value of the shares. This would further imply that a fair share price for the company would be 200 pence. However, this method is somewhat flawed because it assumes that all assets can be sold for fair value and all liabilities can be settled at fair value. In reality, the only time when all assets and liabilities will be sold is if the business is wound up under loser or liquidity problems. As such, assets are most likely to be auctioned off by the creditors and shareholders are unlikely to receive a fair value for them. Indeed, assets such as inventory are often sold at less than ten per cent of their market value. As such, this method is likely to be unreliable, particularly for a business with such a large volume of inventory (Lumby, 1994).Another method of calculating the potential fair value of a company is to use the value of net earnings and compare this value to the historical price / earnings ratio to work out what the current fair price should be for the sha res. Based on this method, the average price / earnings ratio of Kingfisher has been 16.18 over the past five year period.Year200320042005200620072008AverageEarnings per share (pence)16.417.420.812.211.811.715.05Share price (pence)257.25285.5259235.75252.75138.1238.0583Price / Earnings Ratio15.6859816.40804612.4519219.3237721.4194911.8034216.1821Applying this to the earnings per share over the past year of 11.7 gives an estimate of the fair value of the share price of 189.33 pence this is 47% higher than the market value of the shares. As such, this also implies that the current market value of the shares is too low. However, valuing the company on this basis is also flawed, in that it assumes that the company will maintain its past performance, and that the past performance of the shares has been efficient. Indeed, for Kingfisher this is arguably even less of a relevant method by which to judge the shares, as Kingfisher is currently suffering significant problems in its main UK mar ket. Therefore, attempting to value the company based on its past valuations assumes that the company is still performing as it did in the past, something which is arguably not the case. In addition, with many predicting that the Kingfishers UK market will continue to shrink, it is possible that the companys ability to generate earnings will be further impaired, and its earnings per share ratio will fall below its average (Lumby, 1994).As such, and given that there is significant irresolution over the future value of Kingfishers assets and liabilities as well as the ability of the company to generate earnings, it is difficult to come up with an analytical method for calculating the fair value of the company. Therefore it is necessary to use the efficient market meditation when attempting to value the company. This hypothesis is based on the view that the market produces the fair value of the shares of the company using all available information. As such, the market should already have priced in the potential for Kingfishers properties to decrease in value and the potential for the company to be unable to make as much money in the future. This is based on the argument that the market as a whole has access to all the information available, and also has experience in reading and judging signals regarding the value of a company. As such, if Kingfisher were currently trading at too high a price, people would sell the shares until the value moved to a fair value. In contrast, were the company currently trading at too cheap a price, participants in the market would buy the shares until the value was driven up to a fair price.As such, the efficient market hypothesis implies that the current fair price for the Kingfisher shares is the price at which they are currently traded on the open market. Therefore, the fair price of the shares is 128.2 pence. However, the efficient market hypothesis is based on markets only being able to act on available information. As such, it is possible that there is a fundamental problem with Kingfisher which will affect the share price but which is not included in the publicly available information. In addition, the market price for the shares can be driven by factors such as investment banks buying up shares, or takeover rumours. Therefore, in the short term the market value of shares may not forge their fair value, as the market may not have all the information or may be being driven by other factors. However, in the long term, the professional analysts who are employed by many of the banks and investment funds which buy and sell shares will be best able to value the shares, and hence the best estimate of the fair value of the shares is their current market value 128.2 pence.ReferencesKingfisher (2008) Kingfisher Plc. http//www.kingfisher.co.uk/ Accessed 16th August 2008.Knott, G. (2004) Financial Management. Palgrave MacMillan.Lumby, S. (1994) Investment Appraisal and financing Decisions. Thomson Learning.Turne r, G. (2008) The Credit Crunch Housing Bubbles, Globalisation and the Worldwide Economic Crisis. Pluto Press.Yahoo Finance (2008) Kingfisher Share Price Chart. http//uk.finance.yahoo.com/q/bc?s=KGF.Lt=5y Accessed 18th August 2008.

Children Learn To Be Strong Children And Young People Essay

Children Learn To Be Strong Children And Young People EssayThe main principle of building positive relationships is identified in the proto(prenominal) Years -Development Matters document is that children learn to be strong and independent through positive relationships. E very child is a unique man-to-man, a competent student from birth who can be strong, cap able-bodied, confident and self-assure. Children learn to be strong and independent from a base of loving and secure relationships with p arnts and /or key achievementers. Pargonnts ar childrens source and most enduring educators. When p arents and practitioners work together in Early Years settings, the results eat a positive impact on childrens becomement and schooling. Early geezerhood practitioners need to consider childrens climb on and stage of ascendment as a factor when ensuring that the surroundings is safe and suitable for children. If you are able to build technical relationships with parents, this i s also a really positive thing, as parents give share culture easier and take an interest in what their child is learning. The EYFS has as a statutory component the requirement for all children to be allocated a key person. A key person is someone who develops a close and genuine link with a child, takes additional responsibility for the childs welfare and works closely with parents. A key worker acts as a surrogate attachment figure when the child is illogical from parents and carers.This essay will agnise how positive relationships conjure childrens well-being. And analyse the importance of a key worker musical arrangement. It will explain the benefits of building partnership with parents for children learning and festering. Describe how to develop positive relationships within the archean(a) years setting, making reference to principles of legal colloquy.The main principle of building positive relationships is identified in the Early Years -Development Matters documen t is that children learn to be strong and independent through positive relationships. Effective communication pranks a vital role in the early years settings. When effective communication is established, positive relationships can begin to develop between practitioners and preteen children. Good health and well-being is central to effective learning. Children are to a greater extent likely to develop self-confidence, resilience and positive views about themselves when they are involved in a respected, safe and secure environment where their achievements and contributions are values and celebrated. Childrens relationships influence their well-being through development, and learning. Consistent, secure, responsive, and respectful relationships with caring adults are vital to childrens wellbeing. Through religioning relationships with adults, young children learn about their world and their outer space in it. They learn the world is safe and responsive to their inevitably.Babies a nd young children learn to be strong and independent through loving and secure relationships with parents and carers. When children are looked after outside the legal residence they can develop security and independence through having a key person to care for them. A keyworker such as a practitoner provides a reassuring link with home so that the children can cope with being scattered from the special lot in their lives.Positive relationships with children and young people are important beca lend oneself- When children feel comfortable with us they can separate more easily from their parents- Children are more likely to participate in the play and learning activities if they are secure emotionally- When children have strong relationships, they are less likely to show unwanted behaviour as we can recognise and meet their needs- Childrens language develops more quickly beca part they feel condent talking to us- Practitioners can plan more accurately as they understand childrens dev elopmental needs and know their interests- Practitioners are able to respond to children more eectively because they can recognise their expressions and emotions.Children deserve to feel, and to be respected by all adults and opposite children. Children want and need positive, loving relationships with the people close to them.The Early Years Foundation stage has a key worker scheme in operation. Each child will be given a responsible member of staff which we refer to as a key worker. A key worker is a practitioner who is designated to meeting the various(prenominal) needs of a child, and to build a positive relationship with their parents. The key worker trunk is essential for children to develop a close relationship and strong bond with a key worker who will be looking after them. A key worker is responsible for the settling in period.The key worker needs to form a bond with the children, especially babies in their care. Babies need to be with the same people each day to deve lop social relationships. This is why the Early Years standards have put a key worker system into action. A key worker will be nominated as the first point of contact for the child and family. In disposition for practitioners to understand the childs requirements and modify the child to become secure in their environment practitioners will have to build a relationship with parents in order to discover the childs routine an grumpy interests and needs the child may have. The keyworker system is especially important for young babies as they are totally dependent upon their careers, they can become anxious when separated from their parents.Erik Erikson devised a theory of psychology development. Erik Erikson believed that the quality of care of children in this age group receive depends on how well they develop trust in their careers. Erikson claimed that in the stage (birth-1year) the child will develop a sense of basic in the world and in his ability to sham events around him. The development of this depends on the consistency of the childs major caregiver. If the care the child receives is consistent, predictable and reliable then the child will develop a sense of trust, and will be able to feel secure even when threatened. However, if the care has been harsh, or inconsistent, unpredictable and unreliable then the child will develop a sense of mistrust and will non build confidence in the world around them. This child will constantly carry mistrust with him to other relationships. McLeod, S. A. (2008).Successful development of trust will enable the child to feel safe and secure within their environment. Being consistent with childs routine and ensuring their individual needs are met will develop trust. Key workers should allow time for a one to one communication with individual children throughout the day to strengthener their emotional well-being.All Early years settings will meet their own requirements of roles and responsibilities. The role of a key w orker is to keep up to date with the childs development within the setting through observation, and sharing this information with the parents and carers.Responsibilities of the key worker includeAssessing the childs individual needs.Sharing information with parents on all aspects of their childs care.Meeting the entire childs need throughout the day in nursery.Physical needs-Nappy changing, skin care and bottle feeding.Emotional needs-Settling the child on arrival each session and comforting when distressed.Developmental needs- Planning learning with the individual childSpend time with individual children promoting their learning and development through play.The Ecological systems theory states that human development is influenced by the different types of environmental systems, speculate by famous psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner. The micro systems setting is the direct environment we have in our lives. Your family, friends, classmates, teachers, neighbours and other people who h ave a direct contact with you are included in your micro system. The micro system is the setting in which we have direct social interactions with these social agents. Sarah Mae Sincero (March14, 2012). In early years setting, a childs microsystem would include their relationship with their key workers, friends, other staff members and the environment.Effective key worker should be committed to their role, by demonstrating to be a good communicator, needs to remain calm and confident throughout the day, able to make time to communicate with the parent and carers. Effective communication with children can develop positive relationships and develop a strong bond, it is therefore important for practitioners to communicate in an trance manner.Childrens learning and wellbeing are enhanced when families and childcare professionals work together in partnership to bring up the best outcomes for children quality care occurs when childcare professions understand each childs family, culture, community and when they use this knowledge to provide experiences in agencys that are meaningful to the child.When parents and practitioners work together in early years settings, the results have a positive impact on childrens development and learning. Early Years settings work to build parent confidence in what they do already at home and they offer idea to support and enhance this. Most significantly, they exchange information about children weakly or on a weekly bias with parents. They listen to what parents have to say about their own childs capabilities and interests, ad make use of these observations for future planning, encouraging parents to be active in the planning process. Parents and practitioners have a lot to learn from each other this can help them to support and extend childrens learning and development. Parents should review their childrens progress regular and contribute to their childs learning and development record. Parents can be helped to understand more ab out learning and development record. Young children flourish when the adults caring for them work together. Families know their childs strengths, personality, moods and behaviours very well. When families and staff work together they can exchange information, and can focus on meeting each childs needs and supporting their development. When children see positive communication between their parents and staff, they begin to learn that it is important to build health relationships, for example children who see their parents communication well and being friendly with staff, children will feel valued and important when in the care of their practitioners. Parents and carers who are positively involved with their children can help shrivel up mental health difficulties. In partnership, families and staff can share their experiences with each other and their understanding of how their bond is important to a child. For example (x) likes to cuddle on to a special teddy at sleep time at home, this experience should be offered in the care setting.Strong partnerships between early years practitioners, staff and parents are essential in early years settings and are one of the important relationships to develop. But too often, parents and program staff do not effectively communicate with each other, thereby limiting opportunities for developing open, respectful, and trusting relationships. Miscommunication, or limited communication between adults, can lead to situations that adversely affect all of the parties involved.Parents play an important role in the admission of their child to the early years setting. Working in partnerships will help meet the childs individual needs, through identifying information about a childs background to health and wellbeing such as illnesses, disabilities, allergies, likes and dislikes and emergency contact information. There are many way to involve parents within the setting such as arranging open days, an open day is a social opportunity for parents to communicate with other parents and early years staff this will help build parents confidence and self-esteem. Key workers should share their observations and assessments of the child with their parents and encourage parents to try out similar activities at home with their child. Outgoings in an early years settings is a good opportunity for parents to be involved in their childs learning and development, when the early years setting has organised an forthcoming this will give parents the opportunity to take part and come along and meet other children and staff. Parent evenings play a vital. Role in early years they will allow parents and keyworkers to discuss their childrens development progress. Parents should be invited to come to the setting to carry out workshops or activities on particular subjects, all parents are unique and come from different backgrounds, they can get the opportunity to be involved in promoting diversity by carrying out activities such as prepar ation food or demonstrating different clothing from different backgrounds. There are many barriers to parent involvement which must be recognised and flog to promote involvement and partnership working. Parents with different languages may find it uncomfortable to communicate so staff members should aim to learn a few works and phrased in home languages to help them feel welcome. If a parent has low self-esteem and confidence they will not feel comfortable in joining in. practitioners should overcome this barrier by welcoming and supporting parents in becoming involved in the setting. Parents have busy life and will not always have time to communicate with the staff at the setting when they are dropping or picking up their child, so practitioners should arrange times or regular parents evenings for parents to communicate in their available time.Positive relationships with children are important practitioners act as role models and are effectively teaching children how to have posit ive relationships with other people as well. A positive relationship for a young child is very important as this increases their confidence and trust in other people. Positive relationships are made by first of all actively listening to the child and finding out their likes, and dislikes.Children at different stages have very different needs and interests and learn in different ways. Communication for children needs to consider different abilities and needs at different ages and this must be child-centred and age appropriate. Communication is a fundamental skill within a learning environment and is the main source of interaction amongst children, practitioners and staff in a learning environment. It is a mean of setting foundations to build positive relationships making children feel safe and to develop their self-esteem (feel good about themselves). In order for communication methods to be effective we need to have knowledge of relationships which is the main concept that drives po sitive behaviour. Actively listening to children, what they have to say is an example which can promote relationship in a learning environment. The importance of this form of communication is that it tends to help children to build their self-esteem, makes them feel valued and welcomed because their views are being listened to by others. verbal communication requires verbally encouraging children to respond to open question discussions which can promote positive relationships. Written communication in the form of comments, praise (certificates) bring out achievements in good work can contribute towards positive relationships. The importance of this form of communication is that it keeps the children interested to take part, increase their concentration. Creates an effective learning environment and stimulates them to strive for success which contributes towards positive relationships in a learning environment.Regardless of the type of setting, the ability to communicate effectively is crucial for developing positive relationships with children, young people and their families. Communicating well involves the followingGiving your full attention- by maintain eye contact.Being aware of your body language use appropriate gestures and facial expressions.Listening- by showing response of nodding and smiles.Taking account of individual needs.Being sensitive to cultural differences in communication.If the child speaks different language- use of photographs or other visual aids ma help.Hearing impediment- use sign language or visual aids to facilitate communication more effectively.Being confident build confidence in your communication skills by practicing how and what you want to communicate, and role modelling good communication skills.ConclusionPositive relationships are important because it helps a child to develop independence and build their self-esteem, positive relationships will help children feel confident, secure and be able to trust their relationships w ith adults. A strong connection between families and childcare providers is essential for building positive relationships. A Parents role is to talk with the people who care for your child on a daily basis about eating habits, behaviour, activities, learning of new skills, friends, or other happenings in your childs day. . As a parent you need to strengthen the bond between your child and her keyworker by helping to establish an attitude of trust. Mention the keyworkers name in conversation at home, and show interest in your childs interactions with her/him. As a practitioner, you should know the importance of working with parents and how these relationships can support childrens learning. Practitioners and parents need to develop a good two way communication in order to gain good effective positive relationship between the child and a practitioner.

A power amplifier

A antecedent amplifierIntroductionA government agency amplifier is an electronic device that changes the align of a channelize. It is usually used to transfer high power to a little output preventive such as speakers where there load is virtually 8 ohms 1. The relationship between the output and input is called the transfer function. An important aspect of the amplifier is the gain. The gain is the ratio between input and output whether this input is occurrent, potential difference or power. Therefore, the gain does not select a unit. The quality of the amplifier is determined by many aspects, which are gain, bandwidth, skill, linearity, noise and opposites. As one of these characteristics increase the others may decrease. Therefore, the amplifier will be designed to meet the required specifications determined by the application for which it will be used for.The various designs of the amplifiers are secernateified into many types which include A,B,C,D and some other t ypes derived by combining the basic ones such as class AB which is obtained from class A and class B pertaining to their efficiency and linearity 1. Ideally, power amplifiers are supposed to deliver 100% of the power to the load. However, as some of the power dissipates in the components of the amplifier, hence we do not have ideal power amplifiers. It is found that the linearity has an inverse relationship to the efficiency of the amplifier. The classes A, B and C power amplifiers are considered inefficient but linear whereas the other types are considered efficient but more complex than the basic types. Class A power amplifiers are least efficient than the others. The efficiency of class B is much higher than class A, however, class C has the highest efficiency level compared to class A and B 2. The scope of this paper is to discuss class B power amplifier in details.Class B power amplifierThis class of amplifier was developed in order to improve class A power amplifiers, which ha ve low efficiency rating. 1-3 shows and explains the internal design, the efficiency, the advantages and disadvantages, and the applications of class B power amplifiers.Internal circuit and operationTo get a sufficiently good amplification of the input wave form in the output, a push-pull class B power amplifier configuration must be used. This configuration is based on cardinal transistors. The term push-pull comes from the fact that two transistors in a class B amplifier conduct in alternating half(a)(a)-cycles of the input 1. Moreover, there are two types of push-pull configurations, one with transformers and one without transformers 2.A balance centre tapped input transformer is used to split the incoming waveform signal into two equal cycles that are 180 degrees out of phase with each other. another(prenominal) center-tapped output transformer is used to recombine the signals. If the transformer is ideal we can get two collector currents that flow in opposite directions, he nce no magnetization of the transformer shopping mall takes place which in turn minimizes the deviance in between the two signals. Both transistors used are of NPN transistor type where their emitter terminals are connected in concert 2.discusses the mechanism in which the circuit works. Primarily, when no input signal is present, both transistors are biased at cutoff. When a signal is present during the positive half cycle, the transistors base inputs are in anti-phase to each other which causes transistor TR1to become biased supra cutoff due to the positive base input that drives a large collector current, while TR2 is still biased at cutoff as the base current will go negative, making the collector current decrease by an equal amount of the increase in the collector current in TR1. This will result in an amplified positive-output half cycle. When the input signal is in the negative half cycle, the same procedure is done but in opposite, resulting in TR1 returning to the cutoff state while TR2 start construct until it becomes biased above cutoff. This will result in an amplified negative-output half cycle. The half cycles combine to produce an output amplified 360 degrees signal with overrefinement. This effect is the push-pull effect. Advantages and Disadvantages of Class B power amplifierClass B amplifiers have an advantage over class A amplifiers which is that the collector current is zero when the input signal to amplifier is zero that cause no power dissipation in the quiescent condition which leads to higher efficiency 1. The main goal of using power amplifiers is to generate maximum AC power to the load, while consuming the minimum DC power possible from the supply.The efficiency of class B amplifiers in all types may reach up to 75% which is much higher than class A amplifiers 2. The equation shown above is used to calculate the percentage efficiency of all power amplifiers. Pout is the power delivered to the load and PDC is the power taken from the supply.Class B amplifiers has one main disadvantage which is the high distortion that occurs in the output signal. This type of distortion is called the crossover distortion 2. This distortion occurs when the transistors are switching over from one to another. Each transistor requires minimum voltage VBE which is about 0.7V to conduct. When one transistor is turning off by having VBE less than 0.7V and the other transistor is turning on but still the input voltage is not greater than VBE, the resulting is a zero voltage unconditioned spot on the output wave shape as it crosses over from one half of the waveform to the other 2, 3.According to 2, the crossover distortion cause a reduction in the overall peak to peak value of the output waveform causing the maximum power output to be reduced. Hence, class B power amplifiers today are not used in many applications it is only used as an audio amplifier. There are many ways to get rid of crossover distortion effect, but the most com mon one is to bias both the transistors at a point fairly above their cut-off point 1, 2. This will lead us to class AB Amplifier circuit which is out of this paper scope.ApplicationThe cost of class B amplifier is not high therefore it is used in low budget designs. Furthermore, it is used in designs where the quality of the sound is not important because of the distortion it provides 3. However, class B amplifier is preferred in designing audio power amplifiers 3. 3 reveals that most of the time the music will be low so the signal will act as if it is in class A region. This means that the distortion will not be that bad. Moreover, the distortion can be minimized by using a negative feedback loop 3. 3 also emphasizes that the sound power produced by this amplifier is huge and it can be run without heat sinks.ConclusionThis research was conducted in order to investigate the properties of class B power amplifier. First an overview about power amplifiers was considered in order to develop a better understanding about the reasons bunghole classifying them to many types. It was found that each class has its own application which it suits for. This is determined according to many aspects such as linearity and efficiency which are reciprocally proportional. Class B was found to be higher in efficiency compared to class A but less in linearity.Looking into the configuration of class B, it was found that class B amplifier has two possible configurations, one with a transformer and the other without the transformer. Both configurations works with two transistors where each one conducts for a half cycle (180 degrees), which gives the opportunity to the other transistor to cool. However, the configuration where the amplifier does not have a transformer is more efficient because less energy is lost in elements as a result of eliminating the transformer core.Class B amplifier was found to be used in low cost designs and designs where the clarity of the voice is not imp ortant. The crossover distortion can be removed by using a negative feedback loop or bias both transistors at a point slightly above their cut-off point, which is the idea of class AB power amplifier.

Psychological Effects Of Long :: essays research papers

The Psychological Effects of an Injury With every reproach it is important to remember that the athlete result be modify mentally. Not all athletes will act identically to the same injury. Although research shows there are factors that are commonly seen among athletes going through adjustment to injury and rehabilitation. There are three reactive phases of the injury and rehab process. They are reaction to injury, reaction to rehabilitation, and reaction to return to competition or career callination. The reactions fall into quartette time frames short term, long term, chronic, and termination.In the scenario the athlete was diagnosed with a second degree ankle sprain. This would fall under the category of a long term injury. A long term injury is one where the rehabilitation time is longer than four weeks and may take up to a year. Some opposite examples of injuries in this category would be fractures, orthopedic and general surgeries, second and third degree sprain and stra ins, and debilitating injuries. In the reaction to the injury itself, there is a primary reaction followed by a secondary reaction. With this ankle sprain, a common primary reaction is that of fear. This athlete seat be afraid of many another(prenominal) things ranging from them never getting better to never getting to play again to being afraid of the unknown. In order to conquer this fear the athletic trainer needs to help reassure the athlete about their injury. This can be done by presenting the truth about the injury and rehab process in a manner they can understand and gaining the athlete&8217s trust in the athletic trainer.A common secondary reaction is anger. During this time the athlete may have an angry or hostile attitude and the person around the athlete at the time often takes the force of the anger. It is usually just a release for the athlete not a personal attack on the trainer.This athlete will also have reactions to their rehabilitation. Loss of vigor and irrati onal thoughts are the primary reactions to long term rehab. The thing the trainer needs to be aware of at this point in time is that the loss of vigor can be masked as depression. The athlete experiencing loss of vigor will not have the same spirit as they usually do, but they will not have the common signs and symptoms of true depression. The athlete needs to understand that these feelings are normal as long as there are no signs of clinical depression.

Colonial Society and Economy :: American America History

Colonial Society and EconomyThere were numerous do of the cut and Indian War the Peace of Paris of 1763 ended the French and Indian War, closing completely French power in North America. With the decease of King George II, the new English king, King George the III, wanted to put an end to the French and Indian War, pursuing peace and agreement. With this agreement, the Peace of Paris of 1763, came many stipulations. The French lost all of their land in North America. Many of the area settlers were forced to leave their homes, and many stayed behind to fight for their country. However, British rule was already set to dominate North America. Due to new government rule, King George III, peace was now the mindset of the English. After the Peace of Paris of 1763, land and possessions were shared among Britain and Spain. Britain got all of the French lands and possessions east of the Mississippi River and all of Florida which was owned by Spain. To make up for Spain losing Florida, the y trustworthy Louisiana, which at that time was New Orleans and all the French land that was to the west of the Mississippi River. After allocating this land, the French had none left in North America. Also, in the West Indies, the French forfeited Tobago, Dominica, Grenada, and St. Vincent, which was most of what they had in the area. Basically, the Peace of Paris of 1763 left the French with nothing, and that was the goal. The people of the Americas were also effected by the ending of the French and Indian War. After the English received Spanish Florida, they invited all of the Spanish settlers to stay and continue practicing their religion, Spanish Catholicism, but most did not stay. The Spanish king had ordered the Spanish settlers to leave the small town and gave them all free transportation to Spanish owned lands in the Caribbean. Most of the Spanish settlers sold their property within a year at very(prenominal) low prices and moved to Mexico and Cuba. The French settlers, however, mainly stayed in the area. French authority roused them not to leave, but instead to stay in the now Spanish ground and work to create a movement against further English expansion. There were a great number of French settlers in the area because the French territory, Louisiana, was very large.